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Giovanni Villani ( 1276 or 1280 – 1348, (:dʒoˈvanni vilˈlaːni))〔Bartlett (1992), 35.〕〔 was an Italian banker, official, diplomat and chronicler from Florence who wrote the ''Nuova Cronica'' (''New Chronicles'') on the history of Florence. He was a leading statesman of Florence but later gained an unsavory reputation and served time in prison as a result of the bankruptcy of a trading and banking company he worked for. His interest in and elaboration of economic details, statistical information, and political and psychological insight mark him as a more modern chronicler of late medieval Europe.〔Bartlett (1992), 35–36.〕 His ''Cronica'' is viewed as the first introduction of statistics as a positive element in history.〔Villani, Giovanni. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 4, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD〕 However, historian Kenneth R. Bartlett notes that, in contrast to his Renaissance-era successors, "his reliance on such elements as divine providence links Villani closely with the medieval vernacular chronicle tradition."〔Bartlett (1992), 36.〕 In recurring themes made implicit through significant events described in his ''Cronica'', Villani also emphasized three assumptions about the relationship of sin and morality to historical events, these being that excess brings disaster, that forces of right and wrong are in constant struggle, and that events are directly influenced by the will of God. Villani was inspired to write his ''Cronica'' after attending the jubilee celebration in Rome in 1300 and noting the venerable history of that city. He outlined the events in his ''Cronica'' year for year, following a strictly linear narrative format. He provided intricate details on many important historical events of the city of Florence and the wider region of Tuscany, such as construction projects, floods, fires, famines, and plagues.〔Bartlett (1992), 36–40.〕〔Kleinhenz (2004), 1102.〕〔Benedictow (2004), 286.〕 While continuing work on the ''Cronica'' and detailing the enormous loss of life during the Black Death in 1348, Villani died of the same illness.〔 His work on the ''Cronica'' was continued by his brother and nephew. Villani's work has received both praise and criticism from modern historians. The criticism is mostly aimed at his emphasis on supernatural guidance of events, his organizational style, and his glorification of the papacy and Florence. ==Life and career== Giovanni Villani was born into the Florentine merchant middle class. He was the son of Villano di Stoldi di Bellincione, who came from an old and well-respected ''arti maggiori'' family of merchants.〔Kleinhenz (2004), 1147.〕〔 Villani was a member of the ''Arte di Calimala'' (wool finishers) guild in Florence since 1300, serving on the ''mercanzia'' council of eight.〔 During that year he visited Rome during the jubilee celebration. After observing the well-known ancient monuments of Rome and acknowledging its renowned historical personages, he was inspired to write the ''Cronica'', a universal history of Florence in a strictly linear, year-by-year format.〔 During the early years of the 14th century, he gained political perspective by travelling throughout Italy, Switzerland, France and Flanders for the Peruzzi bank, of which he was a shareholder from 1300 to 1308.〔Kleinhenz (2004), 1144.〕〔"Villani, Giovanni." (2008). (In Encyclopædia Britannica ). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2008-01-14.〕 Traveling abroad as a factor for the company, Villani was paid a regular salary in addition to his shareholding profits.〔De Roover (2007), 33.〕 On May 15, 1306, one of the first exchange contracts (''cambium'') to mention the city of Bruges involved two parties: Giovanni Villani, representing the Peruzzi Company, granting a loan to Tommaso Fini, representing the Gallerani Company of Siena.〔De Roover (2007), 49.〕 Villani and his brother Matteo transferred most of their economic activities to the Buonaccorsi firm by 1322. Giovanni Villani was a co-director of Buonaccorsi in 1324.〔 The Buonaccorsi handled banking and commodity trade activities, spreading their influence throughout Italy, France, Flanders, England and several places in the Mediterranean.〔 Villani returned to Florence in 1307 where he married and settled down for a life of city politics. He became one of the priors of Florence in 1316 and 1317. At the same time, he participated in the crafty diplomatic tactics that resulted in peace with Pisa and Lucca.〔 As head of the mint beginning in 1316, he collected its earlier records and created a register of all the coins struck in Florence.〔 In 1321, he was again chosen prior, and in 1324 was deputed to inspect the rebuilding of the city walls.〔Vauchez ''et al.'' (2000), 1517.〕 He went with the Florentine army to fight against Castruccio Castracani, lord of Lucca, and was present at Altopascio during Florence's defeat. In his ''Cronica'', he gave a detailed account of why Florence was unable to acquire Lucca after the death of Castruccio Castracani.〔 A famine spread across Tuscany in 1328. From 1329 to 1330 Villani was a commune-appointed magistrate of provisioning protecting Florence from the famine's worst effects. In order to mitigate rising levels of starvation and assuage peasant discontent, grain was speedily imported from Sicily through Talamone, were taken from the city purse by the Florentine commune to aid the relief effort, and all the city's bakers had their ovens requisitioned by the government so that loaves of bread could be sold at affordable prices to the riotous and starving poor.〔Bartlett (1992), 39.〕 Villani was sent on another diplomatic mission in 1329, this time to Bologna to meet Cardinal Bertrand de Pouget.〔 From 1330 to 1331 he superintended the making of Andrea Pisano's bronze doors for the Baptistry.〔〔 At the same time, he served as the consul for his guild of the ''Arte di Calimala'' and watched over the raising of the ''campanile'' of the Badìa.〔Franklin Toker (1976), 158, footnote 10.〕 He was also sent with others as a hostage to Ferrara, to ensure that Florence made good on a debt; he resided there for some months in 1341.〔Michele Luzzati, ''Villani, Giovanni'', in: ''Lexikon des Mittelalters'', vol. 8, col. 1679.〕 Villani often expressed an optimistic viewpoint in his writing; this changed with the short-lived regime of Walter VI of Brienne, a despot invited to Florence and granted ''signoria''.〔Kleinhenz (2004), 1146.〕 In fact, after experiencing his own financial troubles, a terminated career, and the failure of Florence in international affairs, and witnessing a host of different natural calamities and the onset of the Black Death in Europe, he became convinced that the apocalypse and final judgement was near.〔 The bankruptcy of the Buonaccorsi Company led to Villani's conviction and imprisonment in 1346, as he was a main partner.〔Caesar (1989), 147–148.〕〔Wolfgang (1960), 150.〕 Other banking companies also went bankrupt, such as the Peruzzi in 1343 and the Compagnia dei Bardi in 1346 (they were allied in a joint venture by 1336); Villani calculated that before their bankruptcy the Peruzzi had lost some 600,000 florins and the Bardi had lost some 900,000 florins.〔Hunt (1990), 149 and 151.〕 Although Villani attributed the losses to the companies' massive monetary loans to Edward III of England which were never repaid, historian Edwin S. Hunt suggests that the firms simply lacked the resources to have made such loans, which in all probability were much smaller and were not the key reasons for the companies' failures.〔Hunt (1990), 149–150.〕 The Bardi and Peruzzi were just two of many European banks that Edward III accepted loans from, prominent members of the Bardi and other Florentine families were owed only 63,000 Florins by Edward in 1348, and even a mass of small lenders and investors in Florence could not have made the necessary loan to England.〔Hunt (1990), 155–157.〕 The figure Villani asserted of 400,000 Florins owed to the Peruzzi by Edward alone equalled Villani's estimate for the entire payroll of 30,000 workers of the Florentine cloth industry in 1338.〔Hunt (1990), 157.〕 Hunt asserts that the failures of the Florentine banks seems closely tied to the expansionist policy of Florence in Tuscany, hoping that newly conquered territory would yield greater security for their trade in northern Europe, but instead resulted in costly campaigns and little profit.〔Hunt (1990), 160.〕 In addition to the questionable figures Villani posed for the Peruzzi and Bardi companies, it is also known that several events described in his ''Cronica'' surrounding the Buonaccorsi's bankruptcy were written to deliberately obscure the truth about the company's fraudulent behavior; Miller writes that "this is one of the most convincing conclusions" of historian Michele Luzzati's ''Giovanni Villani e la Compagnia dei Buonaccorsi'' (1971).〔Miller ''et al.'' (2002), 109, Footnote 10.〕 Villani and the Buonaccorsi had gained an unsavory reputation as early as 1331, when Villani was tried (and cleared) for barratry for his part in building the new third circuit of walls around Florence.〔 Charles, Duke of Calabria had granted the Buonaccorsi the right to tax three of the six districts of Florence, which did not help Villani's reputation amongst his fellow citizens.〔 In early June 1342, partners and agents of the Buonaccorsi suddenly fled Florence, Avignon, and Naples, following bankruptcy proceedings by creditors, nearly all of whom had deposits in the Buonaccorsi bank.〔Miller ''et al.'' (2002), 109.〕 Like other Florentine bankers and companies having difficulty with bankruptcy at the time, in September 1342 they supported the move to invite Walter VI of Brienne to become the next ''signor'' of Florence. Walter later suspended all legal actions taken against the Buonaccorsi and other company partners for nearly a year.〔 However, the legal case against the company was reopened and resumed in October 1343, after the violent overthrow of Walter VI.〔 It is unclear how long Villani served his prison sentence for alleged misconduct during the economic disaster of 1346. It is known that he was imprisoned in the ''Carceri delle Stinche''.〔Wolfgang (1960), 149–150.〕 After the overthrow of the Brienne regime and a subsequent but short-lived aristocratic signoria, the ''novi cives'' or new families—some even from the lesser guilds—rose up in late September 1343 and established a government that provided them with much greater representation in officialdom.〔Becker (1962), 360.〕 Villani and other chroniclers disdained these rustic non-aristocrats who suddenly rose to power, considering them brazen upstarts incapable of governance.〔Baron (1960), 443.〕〔 Villani's class was at a constitutional disadvantage, as twenty-one guilds representing twenty-one equal voices in government meant that the oligarchy of higher guildsmen was "helplessly outnumbered" as historian John M. Najemy states.〔Najemy (1979), 63.〕 Yet by the 1350s the general attitude towards the ''novi cives'' had changed much, as even Villani's brother Matteo depicted them in a heroic light for being united in a coalition with the merchants and artisans to curb oligarchic power.〔Becker (1962), 360–361.〕〔Baron (1960), 443–444.〕 Villani was also a staunch supporter of what he deemed the liberties of the Church, while criticizing the new popular government of the ''novi cives'' since they protested against the many legal exemptions the Church enjoyed.〔Becker (1959), 64–65.〕 However, he did find civic pride in that the whole city—including the ''novi cives''—had joined together in an uprising against Walter VI, whose sins of imposing tyranny were, to Villani, sufficient justification for the violence needed to overthrow him.〔Phillips (1979), 89.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Giovanni Villani」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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